1. Introduction
On this page you will find a short introduction to the Flepostore reference collection, followed by instructions on how to get started and by information on how the documentation and descriptions of the rock and ceramic collection are organized. Finally you can read more about how to access the physical collection and about our copyright policy.
1.1 Context
Pottery and stone are widely used materials in our regions since prehistoric times. These unperishable materials are found as archaeological artefacts, in architecture and in artworks. They can be considered as elementary objects of human material culture production, based on the exploitation of natural resources (stone, clay). Therefore, their scientific value in the study of the interaction between humans and their geological environment through time is crucial. This furthermore relates to the historic socio-economic and cultural context, since raw or processed natural materials were subjected to trade, migration, technological developments and architectural and artistic evolution. As such these objects are valuable proxies to answer scientific questions in cultural heritage studies. However, for establishing such historical connections, a key factor consists in a correct mineralogical and chemical determination (“fingerprinting”) and hence in the geological and geographical provenance of these lithic and ceramic objects. This is where the importance of a reference collection comes into play.
1.2 Aims
Flepostore (Flemish Pottery & Stone Reference collection) offers an online open access database and a physical hands-on reference collection of geomaterials. The collection’s priority is to collect locally produced as well as imported ceramics and local and imported worked stone that are encountered on Flemish archaeological sites and in historical monuments, ranging from prehistoric till pre-industrial times (ca. 5000BC-1700AD). Nevertheless, the collection hosts also more exotic geo-materials retrieved through international research projects and networks at the Departments of Geology and Archaeology of Ghent University.
The principal aim is to collect, to document and to make available diagnostic reference geo-materials: clay and rock sourced from natural outcrops or quarries and ceramics from pottery production sites (e.g. kilns, waste contexts).
Flepostore wants to facilitate the open access availability of these geo-materials. It is a scientific reference platform and a feeding-ground for future research initiatives. Flepostore will function as pivotal network center for geo-archaeologically underpinned support for scientific research, education and heritage management projects in archaeology, geology, arts and architecture, but it also offers high quality information and images for anyone with interest in these topics.
1.3 Methodology
Sample selection
The collection strategy is based on the secured provenance principle. Only samples that have a documented find location and provenance are taken into account. Samples from consumption sites are only taken into account when the geological and geographical provenance is determined in an accurate way (e.g. by means of a potter’s stamp, specialist determination, geochemical and petrographical analysis, etc.).
If necessary and possible multiple representative samples are collected from the selected pottery production sites and stone outcrops or quarries in order to illustrate the variability within one type of rock or ceramic production. However, we do not claim to be exhaustive on this.
Regarding the sampling of ceramics it is important to take into account the intrinsic nature of ceramic production waste. Misfired pottery is quasi always under- or overfired and doesn’t facilitate representative sampling.
Documentation and analysis
The team behind Flepostore paid considerable attention to the quality of the pictures: color appearance of the online samples should be as natural as possible and the break as clear as possible showing the principal minerals and inclusions, the whole offering the best combination between a maximum of resolution and a manageable download speed.
Each sample is documented macroscopically through high resolution photography (Hasselblad H6D-50c, RGB, 8270x6850 pixels). The variability in macroscopic appearance of rock samples is documented by photographing wet surfaces (if relevant), weathered surfaces and fresh breaks.
Ceramic samples are documented through a series of three perpendicularly taken photographs: an internal view of the sherd, an external view and a fresh break. Ceramic fabric pictures consist of multiple recordings that are combined by focus stacking and are applied on a representative selection of the fabric cross section.
A thin section is made from most of the ceramic and rock samples. Each pottery production site, quarry or outcrop is at least documented with a thin section of a representative sample. The thin sections are described in a concise way. Many of the samples in our collection have not been subjected to profound research yet. At this point, it is not our principal aim to offer an exhaustive, detailed and comparative petrographic study for each sample or site.
From this perspective, archaeometrical analysis is not carried out by default neither. Available archaeometrical data is integrated on the sample page under the Micro Tab and is made accessible via the publications under the References Tab.
The present hosted ceramic and rock samples should be seen as a starting point to facilitate further research. The Flepostore platform is a work in progress and more documentation and detailed analyses will be added gradually over the coming months and years and will enrich and nourish the database. We encourage every end-user with potential valuable information to get in contact with the team.
1.4 Collection status
Ceramic
To date (04/2021) the majority of available Flemish Medieval and post-Medieval production sites have been sampled (45 sites). Production sites and ceramic samples are currently still being added to the database. For the Roman period and Pre- and Protohistory we are working on the expansion of the collection of ceramic samples from different production sites.
Rock
The rock collection builds on sourced sub-collections from the Department of Geology and Archaeology established in the framework of earlier research. It currently consists of: a ballast stone collection retrieved from the Bruges outer harbour projects, the reference collection of dr. Roland Dreesen, a silex reference collection, a Roman ground stone tool collection (Phd S. Reniere) and several collections from various research projects of the Progress research group, including many (limestone) building materials.
1.5 How to get started
Navigate through the ceramic and rock samples by selecting the different desired parameters in the left column.
=> multiple values can be selected
=> start typing what you search for, suggestions will appear
Free text search is possible in the upper right corner.
Navigation is also possible by searching desired locations on the map. Click on the location icon and select an inventory number.
2. Ceramic samples
The description of each ceramic sample is organised in six tabs: classification, find location/provenance, hand specimen, micro, sample info and references. Under the final tab you can find a link to cite. In the following sections the different parameters that are discussed under each tab are briefly explained. For certain parameters you will find a link to an Appendix (linked pdf) with more detailed information.
2.1 Classification
- Category: refers to the general classification group. Also referred to as ware group or technology group. For a thesaurus per period see Appendix ceramic categories (obligatory field)
- Fabric name: the fabric name refers to pre-existing corpora or classifications (e.g. the National Roman Fabric Collection (NRFC), Brulet et al. 2010, Peacock & Williams 1986, De Groote 2008, etc.) (optional field)
- Chronology:
- The first level indicates the general period (e.g. Iron Age) (obligatory field)
- The second level specifies the sub-period (e.g. Early, Middle, Late) (optional field)
- The third level reports a precise date (e.g. 1250-1275 CE) (optional field)
- For a thesaurus per (sub-) period: see Appendix ceramic chronologies
- Dating method(-s): specifies the dating method(-s) on which the chronology is based (optional field)
- Potters’ mark: indicates whether a potters’ mark is present on the ceramic sample (yes/no) (obligatory field)
- Additional information: additional remarks on classification related topics. Mentions for example category synonyms or common related terminology in different languages, additional information about typological features, decoration, dating method(-s), specifies on the potters’ stamp, etc. (optional field)
2.2 Find location / provenance
- Find location = Provenance location
If the ceramic sample originates from a pottery production context or a natural geological outcrop (fired clay sample), the find location of the ceramic sample is equal to the provenance location.
- Find location ≠ Provenance location
If the ceramic sample originates from a consumption site, the find location is different from its provenance location. In that case a complementary provenance field is given and specifies the presumed origin of the sample.
Find location
- Site type: ceramic samples are selected from following types of sites (obligatory field)
- Pottery production site: features and structures related to production, e.g. kiln, waste contexts (waste pit)
- Site with natural geological clay outcrop: fired clay sample from a geological clay outcrop
- Consumption site: only ceramic samples of which the provenance can be determined in an accurate way (e.g. by means of a potter’s stamp, geo-chemical analysis, specialist determination, etc.)
- Location: country > province/department > municipality (obligatory field)
- Region: a region is defined as a geographical or historical indication of space (e.g. Eastern Gaul, northern France, Eifel). A further division in sub-region is possible (e.g. Argonne being part of Eastern Gaul) (optional field)
- Site name: refers to the location from which the sample originates, , whether it is the original ‘source’ or an archaeological consumption site (e.g. archaeological site name, toponym of the geological outcrop, quarry name) (obligatory field)
- Excavation or Survey team: person or team at the basis of the discovery of the ceramic or clay find. For example a private archaeological company, university research team, volunteer association (optional field)
- Additional contextual information: information about the structure, feature, layer. Mentions find registration number, excavation permit code, site code, etc. (optional field)
Provenance
Only when Site type = Consumption site
- Location: country (obligatory field) > province/department (optional) > municipality ((optional field). Several options are possible in case the supposed provenance covers multiple countries, provinces/departments and municipalities
- Region: a region is defined as a geographical or historical indication of space (e.g. Eastern Gaul, northern France, Eifel). A further division in sub-region is possible (e.g. Argonne being part of Eastern Gaul) (multiple options are possible) (optional field)
- Supposed site(-s) of production: potential source site(-s) and production site(-s) are suggested (optional field)
- Additional information (optional field)
2.3 Hand specimen description
This tab discusses the fabric of the ceramic sample on macro- and mesoscopic level.
Exterior and interior surface treatment
Discusses the presence of slip (no, yes; if yes: color) and the presence of glaze (no, yes; if yes: type, color and additives) (obligatory field)
Hand specimen fabric features (free text field)
- Discusses the surface and fracture color and the surface texture (gritty, rough or smooth) (obligatory fields)
- Inclusions (non-plastics/tempering): Describes the inclusions large enough to be visible by the naked eye or binocular microscope (e.g. quartz grains, temper, rock fragments, etc.). Discusses optional information on e.g. size, shape, frequency and sorting. (obligatory field)
- Matrix and voids: Matrix description discusses color, homo-/heterogeneity, relative percentage versus voids and inclusions. Voids description discusses size, shape, relative percentage, alignment and potential secondary infillings). (obligatory field)
- Diagnostic features: Check-list of diagnostic features (optional field)
- Additional information (optional field)
=> For the used standards see Appendix Ceramic Hand specimen & thin section description
2.4 Micro description
The Micro tab is optional and groups three pillars that discuss the ceramic sample on microscopic level.
(1) Thin section
- Flepostore inventory number: refers to the location in the physical collection (obligatory field)
- Original inventory number: original laboratory number (optional field)
- Collection: thin sections are physically stored at two locations: the Archaeological (1) and Geological (2) Department of Ghent University (obligatory field)
- Type: Covered or uncovered thin section (obligatory field)
- Comparable thin section(-s): refers to similar and comparable thin sections in our collection that are not part of the digital reference collection. For example thin sections of samples from consumption sites or from comprehensive research projects that were not selected as a reference sample (optional field)
- Microscopic ceramic fabric features
- Matrix: Discusses the clay component and inclusions < 0.01 mm (=matrix). Describes color (PPL and XP), homo-/heterogeneity of the matrix and its relative percentage (versus voids, inclusions).
- Inclusions: Identification of the inclusions (> 0.01 mm). Discusses the size, shape, relative frequency/percentage, sorting, extinction, etc.
- Voids: Discusses size, shape, relative frequency/percentage, alignment, other (e.g. secondary infilling).
- Diagnostic features: Check-list of diagnostic features
- Additional information
=> For the used standards see Appendix Ceramic Hand specimen & thin section description
- Quantitative thin section analysis
- Optional quantitative analysis (e.g. grain size analysis).
(2) Archaeometry
- Optional. Integrates the results of optional archaeometrical analyses (e.g. XRF analysis).
(3) Clay determination
- Optional. Specifies details about the clay that has been used for the production of the ceramic sample: clay type, chrono- and lithostratigraphy. Chronostratigraphy as defined by the International Commission on Stratigraphy, the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) (see The ICS International Chronostratigraphic Chart) .
2.5 Sample info
Lists general information about the ceramic sample.
- Sample type:
- Pottery: all kind of ceramic recipients (table ware, cooking ware, transport ware, etc.)
- Building material (decorative, construction): e.g. bricks and tiles. Includes also technical pottery production elements (e.g. saggar, clay rolls, stilts)
- Terracotta: non-building related objects, e.g. figurine
- Clay sample: (fired) clay sample from a geological outcrop
- Inventory number:
The ceramic inventory number consists of five entities.
- One digit number (1-7): period. Neolithic: 1, Mesolithic: 2, Bronze age: 3, Iron age: 4, Roman: 5, Medieval: 6, Post Medieval: 7 and if Clay sample: 0. Remark: in case of a transition period, periods are separated by an underscore: e.g. 2_3
- Two letter code: abbreviation of the ceramic category (see Appendix Ceramic Categories)
- ISO 3166 Alpha-2 country code : find location/provenance (e.g. Belgium = BE)
- Optional letter code: region/subregion (e.g. ML= Meetjesland). Remark: in case of multiple options (country and (sub-)region), letter codes are separated by an underscore
- Four numbers: serial number
For example: 2.HM.BE.ML.0001 => Mesolithic handmade pottery from Belgium (Meetjesland) with serial number 0001
- Collection:
collection where the sample is physically stored (Archaeological OR Geological Department collection, Ghent University) (obligatory field)
- Donating institute/person:
institute or person that donated the sample (optional field)
- Host collection:
institute where the original collection is stored (e.g. archaeological repository, Geological Survey Belgium, museum, private collection, etc.) (optional field)
- Other samples available:
specifies if there are additional samples available in the reference collection (no/yes). If yes it gives an estimate number of present sherds and an indication of the location (optional field)
- Sample collection method:
- Archaeological excavation
- Archaeological field survey
- Field sampling (clay/rock)
- Loose find
(obligatory field)
2.6 References
Lists all relevant bibliographical sources and links to accessible files.
(optional field)
2.7 Cite this page
Use this link if you want to cite the ceramic sample.
3. Rock samples
The description of each rock sample is organised in six tabs: classification, find location/provenance, hand specimen, micro, sample info and references. Under the final tab you can find a link to cite. In the following sections the different parameters that are discussed under each tab are briefly explained. For certain parameters you will find a link to an Appendix (linked pdf) with more detailed information.
3.1 Classification
- Rock classification: consists of four interdependent levels of which the first one is obligatory. See the Appendix Rock classification for the applied classification scheme.
- Rock name: refers to common nomenclature in the field and in literature (obligatory field)
- Rock synonyms: refers to common synonyms (optional field)
- Chronostratigraphy: refers to the appropriate Eon, Era, Period, Epoch and Age. Based on the chronostratigraphy as defined by the International Commission on Stratigraphy, the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) (see The ICS International Chronostratigraphic Chart on www.stratigraphy.org) (optional field)
- Lithostratigraphy: refers to the appropriate Group, Formation, Member and Bed. Only if securely determined (optional field)
- Additional information: (optional field)
3.2 Find location / provenance
Find location = Provenance location
If the rock sample originates from a quarry, a natural geological outcrop or stone workshop related to an outcrop/quarry, the find location of the rock sample is equal to its provenance location.
Find location ≠ Provenance location
However, if the sample originates from a consumption site or stone workshop not related to an outcrop/quarry, the find location is different from its provenance location. In that case a complementary provenance field is given and specifies the presumed origin of the sample.
Find location
- Site type: rock samples are selected from following types of sites (obligatory field)
- Quarry
- Natural geological outcrop
- Stone workshop related to an outcrop/quarry
- Stone workshop not related to outcrop/quarry
- Consumption site: only for consumption material of which the provenance can be determined in an accurate way (e.g. by means of geo-chemical analysis, specialist determination, comparative research, etc.)
- Location: country > province/department > municipality (obligatory field)
- Region: a region is defined as a geographical or historical indication of space (e.g. Eastern Gaul, northern France, Eifel). A further subdivision in sub-region is possible (e.g. Argonne being part of Eastern Gaul). (optional field)
- Site name: refers to the location from which the sample originates, whether it is the original ‘source’ or an archaeological consumption site. (obligatory field)
- Excavation restoration/conservation or survey team: person or team at the basis of the discovery of the rock sample. For example private archaeological company, university research team, volunteer association. (optional field)
- Additional contextual information: information about the structure/feature/layer. Mentions find registration number, excavation permit code, site code, information about the monument, restauration project, quarry, etc. (optional field)
Provenance
Only when Site type = consumption site or stone workshop not related to an outcrop/quarry.
- Location: country (obligatory field) > province/department (optional field) > municipality ((optional field). Several options are possible in case the supposed provenance covers multiple countries, provinces/departments and municipalities.
- Region: a region is defined as a geographical or historical indication of space (e.g. Eastern Gaul, northern France, Eifel). A further division in sub-region is possible (e.g. Argonne being part of Eastern Gaul) (multiple options are possible). (optional field)
- Supposed site(-s) of production: potential source site(-s) and production site(-s) are suggested (optional field)
- Additional information (optional field)
3.3 Hand specimen description
This tab describes the hand specimen rock sample (i.e. on macro- and mesoscopic level). Following aspects are discussed in free text fields:
- Color (natural and aged)
- Components (grain type, cement type, matrix and porosity)
- Texture (grain size, sorting, grain shape, fracture)
- Structure (e.g. sedimentary diagenetic, tectonic, metamorphic and igneous structures)
- Weathering
- Diagnostic features
- Additional information
For more information: see Appendix Rock hand specimen & thin section description
3.4 Micro description
This tab is optional and groups two pillars that discuss the rock sample on microscopic level:
(1) Thin section
- Flepostore inventory number: refers to the location in the physical collection (obligatory field)
- Original inventory number: original laboratory number (optional field)
- Collection: thin sections are physically stored at two locations: the Archaeological (1) and Geological (2) Department of Ghent University (obligatory field)
- Type: Covered or uncovered thin section (obligatory field)
- Comparable thin section(-s): refers to similar and comparable thin sections in our collection that are not part of the digital reference collection. For example thin sections of samples from consumption sites or from comprehensive research projects that were not selected as a reference sample (optional field)
- Microscopic rock features (free text field):
Following aspects are determined:
- Components (grain type, cement type, matrix and porosity)
- Texture
- Structure
- Weathering
- Diagnostic features
- Additional information
For more information: see Appendix Rock hand specimen & thin section description
- Quantitative thin section analysis
Integrates the results of an optional quantitative analysis (e.g. quantitative grain size analysis).
(2) Archaeometry
Integrates the results of optional archaeometrical analyses (e.g. XRF analysis).
3.5 Sample info
Lists general information about the rock sample.
- Sample type:
- Tool: e.g. quern, whetstone, etc.
- Building material: construction material, decorative or ornamental material
- Sculpture: free standing object (e.g. altar, tombstone, (baptismal) font, etc.)
- Rock sample: unworked fragment from natural outcrop or quarry
(obligatory field)
- Inventory number:
The rock inventory number consists of three entities.
- ISO 3166 Alpha-2 code: find location/provenance (e.g. Belgium = BE)
- Two digit numeral code: rock classification
- Igneous rock: intrusive (=> 11), extrusive (=> 12), pyroclastic (=> 13)
- Sedimentary rock: breccia & conglomerate (=> 21), sand- & siltsone (=> 22), mudstone & shale (=>23), carbonate rocks – limestone (=> 24), carbonate rocks – dolostone (=> 25), flint (=> 26), evaporite (=>27), ore (=> 28), organic (=> 29)
- Metamorphic rock: non foliated (=> 31), foliated (=>32)
- Four numbers: serial number
For example: FR.21.0001 => a breccia/conglomerate-sedimentary rock from France with 0001 as serial number
- Collection:
collection where the sample is physically stored (Archaeological OR Geological Department, Ghent University) (obligatory field)
- Donating institute/person:
institute or person that donated the sample (optional field)
- Host collection:
institute where the original collection is stored (e.g. archaeological repository, Geological Survey Belgium, museum, private collection, etc.) (optional field)
- Other samples available:
specifies if there are additional samples available in the reference collection (yes/no). If yes it gives an estimate number of present samples and an indication of the location (optional field)
- Sample collection method:
- Archaeological excavation
- Archaeological field survey
- Field sampling (clay/rock)
- Loose find
(obligatory field)
3.6 References
Lists all relevant bibliographical sources and links to accessible files.
3.7 Cite this page
Use this link if you want to cite the rock sample.
4. About the physical collection
The samples and their thin sections are stored at the Department of Geology (rock samples) and the Department of Archaeology (rock and ceramic samples). The physical collection is accessible on appointment. For consultation please contact flepostore@ugent.be